Hazelnut

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Hazelnut

A Hazelnut is the Nut of the hazel and is also known as a cob nut or filbert nut according to Species. A cob is roughly spherical to oval, about 15–25 mm long and 10–15 mm in diameter, with an outer fibrous husk surrounding a smooth shell. A filbert is more elongated, being about twice as long as it is round. The nut falls out of the husk when ripe, about 7–8 months after pollination. The kernel of the seed is edible and used raw or roasted, or ground into a paste. Hazelnuts are also used for livestock feed, as are chestnuts and acorns. The Seed has a thin, dark brown skin which is sometimes removed before cooking.

Hazelnuts are produced in commercial quantities in Turkey, Italy and in the American states of Oregon and Washington. Turkey is, by far, the largest producer of hazelnuts in the world.

Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionery to make praline and also used in combination with chocolate for chocolate truffles and products such as Nutella. Hazelnut oil, pressed from hazelnuts, is strongly flavoured and used as a cooking oil.

Hazelnuts are rich in protein and unsaturated fat. Moreover, they contain significant amounts of thiamine and vitamin B6, as well as smaller amounts of other B vitamins. Additionally, 1 cup (237 ml) of hazelnut flour has 20 g of carbohydrates, 12 g of which are dietary fiber.

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Indehiscent

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Indehiscent

Dehiscence is the opening, at maturity, of a Plant structure, such as a Fruit, anther, or sporangium, to release its contents. Sometimes this involves the complete detachment of a part. Structures that open in this way are said to be dehiscent. Structures, such as fruit, that do not open are called Indehiscent.

A similar process to Dehiscence occurs in some Flower buds (e.g. Platycodon, Fuchsia), but this is rarely referred to as Dehiscence unless circumscissile Dehiscence is involved; anthesis is the usual term for the opening of flowers. Dehiscence may or may not involve the loss of a structure through the process of abscission. The lost structures are said to be caducous.

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Peanut

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Peanut

The Peanut, or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), is a Species in the Legume or "bean" Family (Fabaceae). The cultivated Peanut was probably first domesticated in the valleys of Peru. It is an annual herbaceous Plant growing 30 to 50 cm (0.98 to 1.6 ft) tall. The leaves are opposite, pinnate with four leaflets (two opposite pairs, no terminal leaflet), each leaflet 1 to 7 cm (3/8 to 2 3/4 in) long and 1 to 3 cm (3/8 to 1 inch) broad. The Flowers are a typical peaflower in shape, 2 to 4 cm (¾ to 1½ in) across, yellow with reddish veining. After pollination, the Fruit develops into a legume 3 to 7 cm (1.2 to 2.8 in) long, containing 1 to 4 Seeds, which forces its way underground to mature. Hypogaea means "under the earth."

Peanuts are known by many other local names such as earthnuts, ground nuts, goober peas, monkey nuts, pygmy nuts and pig nuts.

History

The domesticated Peanut is an amphidiploid or allotetraploid, meaning that it has two sets of chromosomes from two different species, thought to be A. duranensis and A. ipaensis. These likely combined in the wild to form the tetraploid species A. monticola, which gave rise to the domesticated Peanut. This domestication might have taken place in Paraguay or Bolivia, where the wildest strains grow today. In fact, many pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Moche, depicted Peanuts in their art.

Archeologists have (thus far) dated the oldest specimens to about 7,600 years found in Peru. Cultivation spread as far as Mesoamerica where the Spanish conquistadors found the tlalcacahuatl (Nahuatl = 'Peanut' whence Mexican Spanish, cacahuate and French, cacahuete) being offered for sale in the marketplace of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City). The plant was later spread worldwide by European traders.

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Bean

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Bean

Bean is a common name for large Plant Seeds of several genera of the Family Fabaceae (alternately Leguminosae) used for human food or animal feed.

The whole young pods of bean plants, if picked before the pods ripen and dry, are very tender and may be eaten cooked or raw. Thus the term "green beans" means "green" in the sense of unripe (many are in fact not green in color). In some cases the beans inside the pods of green beans are too small to comprise a significant part of the cooked Fruit.

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Pea

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Pea

A Pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of the Legume Pisum sativum. Each pod contains several Peas. Peapods are botanically a Fruit, since they contain Seeds developed from the ovary of a (Pea) Flower. However, Peas are considered to be a vegetable in cooking. The name is also used to describe other edible seeds from the Fabaceae such as the pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan), the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), and the seeds from several Species of Lathyrus.

P. sativum is an annual Plant, with a life cycle of one year. It is a cool season crop grown in many parts of the world; planting can take place from winter through to early summer depending on location. The average Pea weighs between 0.1 and 0.36 grams. The species is used as a vegetable, fresh, frozen or canned, and is also grown to produce dry Peas like the split Pea. These varieties are typically called field Peas.

The wild Pea is restricted to the Mediterranean basin and the Near East. The earliest archaeological finds of Peas come from Neolithic Syria, Turkey and Jordan. In Egypt, early finds date from ca. 4800–4400 BC in the Nile delta area, and from ca. 3800–3600 BC in Upper Egypt. The Pea was also present in Georgia in the 5th millennium BC. Farther east, the finds are younger. Peas were present in Afghanistan ca. 2000 BC, in Harappa, Pakistan, and in northwest India in 2250–1750 BC. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC this pulse crop appears in the Gangetic basin and southern India.

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Milkweed

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Milkweed

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Milkweed

Asclepias L. (1753), the Milkweed, is a Genus of herbaceous perennial, dicotyledonous Plants that contains over 140 known Species. It previously belonged to the Family Asclepiadaceae, but this is now classified as the subfamily Asclepiadoideae of the dogbane family Apocynaceae.

Milkweed is named for its milky juice, which contains alkaloids, latex, and several other complex compounds including cardenolides. Some species are known to be toxic.

Carl Linnaeus named the genus after Asclepius, the Greek god of healing, because of the many folk-medicinal uses for the Milkweed plants.

Pollination in this genus is accomplished in an unusual manner. Pollen is grouped into complex structures called pollinia (or "pollen sacs"), rather than being individual grains or tetrads, as is typical for most plants. The feet or mouthparts of Flower visiting insects such as bees, wasps and butterflies, slip into one of the five slits in each flower formed by adjacent anthers. The bases of the pollinia then mechanically attach to the insect, pulling a pair of pollen sacs free when the pollinator flies off. Pollination is effected by the reverse procedure in which one of the pollinia becomes trapped within the anther slit.

Asclepias species produce their Seeds in follicles. The seeds, which are arranged in overlapping rows, have white silky filament-like hairs known as pappus, silk, or floss. The follicles ripen and split open and the seeds, each carried by several dried pappus, are blown by the wind.

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Walnut

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Walnut

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Walnut

Walnut (Genus Juglans) are Plants in the Juglandaceae Family . They are deciduous trees, 10–40 meters tall (about 30–130 ft), with pinnate leaves 200–900 millimetres long (7–35 in), with 5–25 leaflets; the shoots have chambered pith, a character shared with the wingnuts (Pterocarya), but not the hickories (Carya) in the same family.

The 21 Species in the genus range across the north temperate Old World from southeast Europe east to Japan, and more widely in the New World from southeast Canada west to California and south to Argentina.

Taxonomy

The genus Juglans is divided into four sections.

Sections and species

* Sect. Cardiocaryon. Leaves very large (40–90 cm) with 11–19 broad leaflets, softly downy, margins serrated. Wood soft. Fruits borne in racemes of up to 20. Nuts have thick shells. Northeast Asia.

• J. ailantifolia Carr. (J. cordiformis Maxim., J. sieboldiana Maxim.)-Japanese Walnut
  
  • J. ailantifolia var. cordiformis-Heartnut
  
  
• J. mandshurica Maxim. (J. cathayensis Dode, J. formosana Hayata, J. hopeiensis Dode, J. stenocarpa Maxim.)-Manchurian Walnut or Chinese Walnut.

* Sect. Juglans. Leaves large (20–45 cm) with 5–9 broad leaflets, hairless, margins entire. Wood hard. Southeast Europe to central Asia.

• J. regia L. (J. duclouxiana Dode, J. fallax Dode, J. orientis Dode)-common Walnut, Persian, English, or Carpathian Walnut
• J. sigillata Dode-Iron Walnut (doubtfully distinct from J. regia)

* Sect. Rhysocaryon. (The black Walnuts) Leaves large (20–50 cm) with 11–23 slender leaflets, finely pubescent, margins serrated. Wood hard. North America, South America.

• J. australis Griseb. (J. brasiliensis Dode)-Argentine Walnut, Brazilian Walnut
• J. boliviana (C. DC.) Dode-Bolivian Walnut, Peruvian Walnut
• J. californica S.Wats.-California Black Walnut
• J. hindsii (Jepson) R.E.Smith-Hinds' Black Walnut
• J. hirsuta Manning-Nuevo Leon Walnut
• J. jamaicensis C.DC. (J. insularis Griseb.)-West Indies Walnut
• J. major (Torrey) Heller (J. arizonica Dode, J. elaeopyron Dode, J. torreyi Dode)-Arizona Black Walnut
  
  • J. major var. glabrata Manning
• J. microcarpa Berlandier (J. rupestris Engelm.)-Texas Walnut or Little Black Walnut
  
  • J. microcarpa var. microcarpa
  • J. microcarpa var. stewartii (Johnston) Manning
• J. mollis Engelm.-Mexican Walnut
• J. neotropica Diels (J. honorei Dode)-Andean Walnut, Cedro Negro , Cedro Nogal , Nogal , Nogal Bogotano
• J. nigra L.-Eastern Black Walnut
• J. olanchana Standl. & L.O.Williams-Cedro Negro, Nogal, Walnut
  
  • J. olanchana var. olanchana
  • J. olanchana var. standleyi
• J. peruviana Dode-Peruvian Walnut
• J. soratensis Manning
• J. steyermarkii Manning-Guatemalan Walnut
• J. venezuelensis Manning-Venezuela Walnut

* Sect. Trachycaryon. Leaves very large (40–90 cm) with 11–19 broad leaflets, softly downy, margins serrated. Wood soft. Fruits borne in clusters of 2-3. Nuts have a thick, rough shell bearing distinct, sharp ridges. Eastern North America.

• J. cinerea L.-Butternut

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Coconut

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Coconut

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Coconut

The Coconut (Cocos nucifera) is a member of the Family Arecaceae (palm family). It is the only accepted Species in the Genus Cocos, and is a large palm, growing up to 30 m tall, with pinnate leaves 4–6 m long, and pinnae 60–90 cm long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the trunk smooth. The term Coconut can refer to the entire Coconut palm, the Seed, or the fruit, which is not a botanical nut. The spelling cocoanut is an old-fashioned form of the word.

The Coconut palm is grown throughout the tropics for decoration, as well as for its many culinary and non-culinary uses; virtually every part of the Coconut palm can be utilized by humans in some manner. However, the extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats such as mangroves; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the Yucatan. In cooler climates (but not less than USDA Zone 9), a similar palm, the queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana), is used in landscaping. Its Fruits are very similar to the Coconut, but much smaller. The queen palm was originally classified in the genus Cocos along with the Coconut, but was later reclassified in Syagrus. A recently discovered palm, Beccariophoenix alfredii from Madagascar, is nearly identical to the Coconut, and more so than the queen palm. It is cold-hardy, and produces a Coconut lookalike in cooler areas.

The Coconut has spread across much of the tropics, probably aided in many cases by seafaring people. Coconut fruit in the wild is light, buoyant and highly water resistant, and evolved to disperse significant distances via marine currents. Fruit collected from the sea as far north as Norway are viable. In the Hawaiian Islands, the Coconut is regarded as a Polynesian introduction, first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers from their homelands in Oceania. They are now almost ubiquitous between 26°N and 26°S except for the interiors of Africa and South America.

The Flowers of the Coconut palm are polygamomonoecious, with both male and female flowers in the same inflorescence. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-pollinated, although some dwarf varieties are self-pollinating. The meat of the Coconut is the edible endosperm, located on the inner surface of the shell. Inside the endosperm layer, Coconuts contain an edible clear liquid that is sweet, salty, or both.

The Indian state of Kerala is known as the Land of Coconuts. The name derives from "Kera" (the Coconut tree) and "Alam" ( "place" or "earth"). Kerala has beaches fringed by Coconut trees, a dense network of waterways, flanked by green palm groves and cultivated fields. Coconuts form a part of daily diet, the oil is used for cooking, coir is used for furnishing, decorating, etc.

Coconuts received the name from Portuguese explorers, the sailors of Vasco da Gama in India, who first brought them to Europe. The brown and hairy surface of Coconuts reminded them of a ghost or witch called Coco. Before it was called nux indica, a name given by Marco Polo in 1280 while in Sumatra, taken from the Arabs who called it jawz hindi. Both names translate to "Indian nut." When Coconuts arrived in England, they retained the coco name and nut was added.

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Taraxacum

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Taraxacum

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Taraxacum

Taraxacum is a large Genus of Flowering plants in the Family Asteraceae. They are native to Eurasia and North America, and two Species, T. officinale and T. erythrospermum, are found as weeds worldwide. Both species are edible in their entirety. The common name dandelion is given to members of the genus, and like other members of the Asteraceae family, they have very small Flowers collected together into a composite flower head. Each single flower in a head is called a floret. Many Taraxacum species produce Seeds Asexually by apomixis, where the seeds are produced without pollination, resulting in offspring that are genetically identical to the parent Plant.

Selected species

*Taraxacum albidum, a white-flowering Japanese dandelion.
*Taraxacum californicum, the endangered California dandelion
*Taraxacum japonicum, Japanese dandelion. No ring of smallish, downward-turned leaves under the flowerhead.
*Taraxacum kok-saghyz, Russian dandelion, which produces rubber
*Taraxacum laevigatum, Red-seeded Dandelion; achenes reddish brown and leaves deeply cut throughout length. Inner bracts' tips are hooded.

• Taraxacum erythrospermum, often considered a variety of Taraxacum laevigatum.

*Taraxacum officinale (syn. T. officinale subsp. vulgare), Common Dandelion. Found in many forms.

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Wheat

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Wheat

Wheat (Triticum spp.) is a grass, originally from the Fertile Crescent region of the Near East, but now cultivated worldwide. In 2007 world production of Wheat was 607 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize (784 million tons) and rice (651 million tons). Globally, Wheat is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food, having a higher protein content than either maize (corn) or rice, the other major cereals. In terms of total production tonnages used for food, it is currently second to rice as the main human food crop, and ahead of maize, after allowing for maize's more extensive use in animal feeds.

Wheat was a key factor enabling the emergence of city-based societies at the start of civilization because it was one of the first crops that could be easily cultivated on a large scale, and had the additional advantage of yielding a harvest that provides long-term storage of food. Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads, biscuits, cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, noodles, couscous and for fermentation to make beer, other alcoholic beverages, or biofuel.

Wheat is Planted to a limited extent as a forage crop for livestock, and its straw can be used as a construction material for roofing thatch. The husk of the grain, separated when milling white flour, is bran. Wheat germ is the embryo portion of the Wheat kernel. It is a concentrated source of vitamins, minerals, and protein, and is sustained by the larger, starch storage region of the kernel-the endosperm.

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Strawberry

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Strawberry

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Strawberry

Fragaria is a Genus of Flowering plants in the rose Family, Rosaceae, commonly known as Strawberry for their edible Fruits. Originally straw was used as a mulch in cultivating the Plants, which may have led to its name. There are more than 20 described Species and many hybrids and cultivars. The most common Strawberries grown commercially are cultivars of the garden strawberry, a hybrid known as Fragaria × ananassa. Strawberries have a taste that varies by cultivar, and ranges from quite sweet to rather tart. Strawberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world.

Classification

There are more than 20 different Fragaria Species worldwide. Key to the classification of Strawberry Species is recognizing that they vary in the number of chromosomes. There are seven basic types of chromosomes that they all have in common. However, they exhibit different polyploidy. Some Species are diploid, having two sets of the seven chromosomes (14 chromosomes total). Others are tetraploid (four sets, 28 chromosomes total), hexaploid (six sets, 42 chromosomes total), octoploid (eight sets, 56 chromosomes total), or decaploid (ten sets, 70 chromosomes total).

As a rough rule (with exceptions), Strawberry Species with more chromosomes tend to be more robust and produce larger plants with larger berries (Darrow).

Strawberries are not true Berries, contrary to the nomenclature. They are actually classified as an Achene indehiscent fruit.

Diploid species

* Fragaria daltoniana J.Gay (Himalayas)
* Fragaria iinumae Makino (East Russia, Japan)
* Fragaria nilgerrensis Schlecht. ex J.Gay (South and Southeast Asia)
* Fragaria nipponica Makino (Japan)
* Fragaria nubicola Lindl. ex Lacaita (Himalayas)
* Fragaria vesca Coville - Woodland Strawberry (Northern Hemisphere)
* Fragaria viridis Duchesne (Europe, Central Asia)
* Fragaria yezoensis H.Hara (Northeast Asia)

Tetraploid species

* Fragaria moupinensis Cardot (China)
* Fragaria orientalis Lozinsk. - (eastern Asia, eastern Siberia)

Hexaploid species

* Fragaria moschata Duchesne - Musk Strawberry (Europe)

Octoploid species and hybrids

* Fragaria × ananassa Duchesne - Garden Strawberry
* Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Mill. - Beach Strawberry (Western Americas)

• Fragaria chiloensis subsp. chiloensis forma chiloensis
• Fragaria chiloensis subsp. chiloensis forma patagonica (Argentina, Chile)
• Fragaria chiloensis subsp. lucida (E. Vilm. ex Gay) Staudt (coast of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, California)
• Fragaria chiloensis subsp. pacifica Staudt (coast of Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, California)
• Fragaria chiloensis subsp. sandwicensis (Decne.) Staudt - Ohelo papa (Hawaii)

* Fragaria iturupensis Staudt - Iturup Strawberry (Iturup, Kuril Islands)
* Fragaria virginiana Mill. - Virginia Strawberry (North America)

Decaploid species and hybrids

* Fragaria × Potentilla hybrids
* Fragaria ×vescana

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Brazil Nut

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Brazil Nut

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Brazil Nut

The Brazil Nut (Bertholletia excelsa) is a South American tree in the Family Lecythidaceae, and also the name of the tree's commercially harvested edible Seed.

The Brazil Nut family is in the order Ericales, as are other well known Plants such as: blueberries, cranberries, sapote, gutta-percha, tea, kiwi Fruit, phlox, and persimmons.

The Brazil Nut tree is the only Species in the monotypic type Genus Bertholletia. It is native to the Guianas, Venezuela, Brazil, eastern Colombia, eastern Peru and eastern Bolivia. It occurs as scattered trees in large forests on the banks of the Amazon, Rio Negro, Tapajós, and the Orinoco. The genus is named after the French chemist Claude Louis Berthollet.

The Brazil Nut is a large tree, reaching 30–45 metres (100–150 ft) tall and 1–2 metres (3–6.5 ft) trunk diameter, among the largest of trees in the Amazon Rainforests. It may live for 500 years or more, and according to some authorities often reaches an age of 1,000 years. The stem is straight and commonly unbranched for well over half the tree's height, with a large emergent crown of long branches above the surrounding canopy of other trees. The bark is grayish and smooth. The leaves are dry-season deciduous, alternate, simple, entire or crenate, oblong, 20–35 centimetre long and 10–15 centimetres broad. The flowers are small, greenish-white, in panicles 5–10 centimetres long; each Flower has a two-parted, deciduous calyx, six unequal cream-colored petals, and numerous stamens united into a broad, hood-shaped mass.

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